Arab States have made strides in incorporating climate considerations into their national policies, strategies and plans. Most countries have identified adaptation priorities, established mitigation targets and taken steps to adopt national disaster risk reduction strategies. Further efforts are needed in developing comprehensive national adaptation plans, enhancing disaster preparedness, assessing and improving climate change education, and localizing climate action and disaster risk reduction initiatives.
The region’s progress on SDG 13 is closely linked to water availability and efficient use (SDG 6), sustainable agriculture and food security (SDG 2), the energy transition (SDG 7), healthy ecosystems (SDGs 14 and 15), climate-induced migration (SDG 10), the built environment (SDG 11) and peace and security (SDG 16). Coherent policies to achieve SDG 13 must incorporate the water-energy-food-environment nexus and seek integrated solutions that align priorities across all SDGs.
Policy approaches to achieving SDG 13 vary among countries, reflecting unique national contexts and available resources. Several common trends are apparent, however, regardless of geographic location or income level.
Countries have made progress in integrating climate change considerations into policies, strategies and plans. The majority of national development plans and visions since 2015 explicitly mention climate change, a notable contrast to those issued earlier, which generally did not.5 Several countries – including Algeria, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, the State of Palestine, Qatar, Somalia, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates – have adopted dedicated national climate plans or strategies since 2015. Some countries have sectoral and local climate plans and strategies. Examples include the Climate Change Policy for a Resilient Water Sector in Jordan, the Climate Change Strategy for Urban Planning and Urban Development Sector in Qatar, the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the Tourism Sector in Tunisia, and the Sustainable Energy Access and Climate Action Plans developed by 61 cities in Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine and Tunisia.
In Egypt, the National Climate Change Strategy 2050 (2022) charts
a multi-sectoral approach to confronting the challenges of climate change and achieving low-emission development. It defines a roadmap with five interconnected goals: sustainable economic growth in key sectors; enhanced resilience through stronger infrastructure, early warning systems and community preparedness; effective governance via stronger institutions, policies and partnerships; robust financing through the mobilization of domestic and international resources; and knowledge and awareness through investments in research, technology transfer and education.
The Sustainable Energy Access and Climate Action Plan developed by the city of Hurghada, in Egypt, outlines a framework with quantifiable objectives for 2030, based on an emissions reference inventory and a detailed assessment of energy consumption. The action plan highlights education and awareness-raising campaigns to deliver guidance and advice for citizens on saving water and energy.
Most States (20 out of 22)6 have submitted at least one nationally determined contribution identifying adaptation needs and priorities, yet only three – Kuwait, the State of Palestine and the Sudan – have adopted a national adaptation plan.7
Nearly all countries put a strong emphasis on water and agriculture as the most critical sectors for adaptation. Priority adaptation measures in these sectors include improving water-use efficiency, reducing flood risks, developing non-conventional water resources, deploying drought- and heat-resistant crop and livestock varieties, conserving genetic resources and reducing food loss and waste. Additional priority sectors for adaptation are coastal zones and health (in most countries), biodiversity, fisheries and urban settlements (in several countries), and infrastructure, tourism and waste management (in some countries).
In the Sudan, the national adaptation plan assesses future vulnerability to climate change in priority sectors (including agriculture, water, health and coastal zones), identifies vulnerable hotspots, and outlines adaptation strategies comprising policies, technologies, systematic observation programmes, climate proofing needs and required investments. Most States (20 out of 22) have set greenhouse gas emissions mitigation targets, primarily contingent on international support. Seventeen countries8 have defined quantified emissions reduction targets. Three – Bahrain, Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic – have committed to actions and projects with mitigation benefits but without specifying quantified targets. Most countries (17 out of 20)9 have made some or all of their mitigation commitments conditional on international support, including finance, technology transfer and capacity-building. The level of mitigation ambition varies considerably. For instance, in countries that have set economy-wide emissions reduction targets relative to a business-as-usual scenario, the reduction coefficients range from 7 per cent in Oman to 92.4 per cent in Mauritania. Notably, eight countries10 have enhanced emissions reduction targets since 2016. For example, Jordan has doubled its reduction coefficient from 15.5 per cent to 31
per cent of emissions relative to a business-as-usual scenario by 2030.
In Morocco, the national climate plan aims to facilitate an
energy transition by promoting energy efficiency and targeting a
52 per cent penetration rate of renewable energies in installed electrical capacity by 2030. The plan also seeks to accelerate the development of efficient buildings, promote sustainable mobility and facilitate the renewal of the road transport fleet. It promotes an energy transition in the agricultural and industrial sectors, advocates for integrated waste management to establish a circular economy and underscores the crucial role of forests in carbon storage.
In the United Arab Emirates, the climate plan seeks to mitigate the causes of climate change
by advancing economic diversification through innovative solutions, all while managing greenhouse gas emissions and sustaining economic growth. Although the plan anticipates an increase in total emissions in line with projected economic and population growth, it aims to decouple emissions from economic growth. It intends to stimulate robust growth in critical emerging non-oil sectors by implementing resource-efficient innovations, generating high added value, fostering job creation in green businesses, and leveraging the symbiotic relationship between climate action and economic diversification.
Some countries have pledged to achieve net-zero emissions. Only a few – including Oman, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates – have taken the crucial step of translating these targets into comprehensive, economy-wide strategies with integrated programmes and specific objectives
for priority sectors, particularly energy. In Oman,
the National Strategy for an Orderly Transition to
Net Zero relies on six core technologies to achieve decarbonization by 2050: energy and resource efficiency, electrification and renewables, battery electric technology, sustainable hydrogen, carbon capture and storage, and negative-emission solutions. Successful implementation requires maturing these technologies, investing in infrastructure, establishing carbon pricing mechanisms, and introducing policies and legislation to incentivize behavioural changes. Other countries, including Bahrain, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, have also set targets to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 or 2060 but have not outlined how they intend to accomplish them.
States have made progress in adopting national disaster risk reduction strategies yet localization remains a challenge. Thirteen countries have either ratified or developed national strategies, five have initiated the strategy development process, and four have yet to commence it.11 While some countries, including Algeria, Morocco, the State of Palestine and Tunisia, have established local bodies to facilitate decentralization
in disaster risk governance, only 32 cities across 10 countries12 have developed local disaster risk reduction strategies and action plans.
Jordan was one of the first Arab countries to ratify
a national disaster risk reduction strategy, which is now in its second edition. Together with Morocco and Tunisia, it stands out as among the few countries globally that have backed national strategies with well-defined financing plans. The National Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy (2023–2030) of Jordan seeks to integrate disaster risk reduction concepts within relevant national strategies; improve the legal and institutional basis for disaster risk reduction; raise awareness through information-sharing, education and training; support disaster-related scientific research; and promote collaboration among stakeholders. It calls for integrating nature-based solutions, such as through the use of check dams, terracing, reforestation and forest conservation to promote watershed management and reduce the risks of floods, landslides and other natural disasters.
In Somalia, the establishment of the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and Disaster Management, the region’s first ministry devoted to disaster risk reduction, has bolstered attention to this topic in national policymaking and programming. An updated nationally determined contribution contemplates several disaster preparedness and management actions, including early warning systems, disaster risk management policies, meteorological networks, and the increased resilience of communities, infrastructure and ecosystems to droughts and floods.
Several countries have committed to integrating climate change and disaster risk reduction within educational curricula yet assessing progress remains challenging due to limited data availability. As part
of their national statements of commitment at the Transforming Education Summit in 2022, 11 countries – Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Mauritania, the State of Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic and the United Arab Emirates – pledged to incorporate climate change into curricula.15 Information on the effective implementation of these commitments is not readily available, however. Little progress has been observed in mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into primary and secondary school curricula, although some headway is evident in individual universities in some countries, including the Comoros, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the State of Palestine, Somalia and the Syrian Arab Republic.16
In Egypt, education-specific strategies and plans, such as the National Education Strategic Plan 2007–2012, the National Strategy to Reform the Vocational
and Technical Training System 2012–2017 and the Strategic Plan of Pre-University Education 2014–2030, do not specifically address climate change education. Various climate and development strategies, however, underscore the importance of integrating climate change education into the educational framework.
Lebanon incorporated climate change education into its National Curriculum Framework for Pre-university General Education in 202217. This framework significantly emphasizes education for sustainable development, underscoring the importance of sustainability competencies across academic disciplines and extracurricular activities. A dedicated committee for climate change education is poised to integrate climate-related issues as cross-cutting concerns in subject curricula. Moreover, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education has established a multistakeholder national committee tasked
with developing a policy paper and strategy on climate change education. In collaboration with
the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Ministry is piloting a Greening Education initiative to equip school principals, teachers and young people with knowledge and skills to foster sustainable practices and environmental stewardship. The initiative has been rolled out in selected public and private schools attended by both Lebanese and refugee students.18
At least half the least developed countries, including the Comoros, Mauritania and Somalia, have gender- and child-sensitive nationally determined contributions.19 The updated national determined contribution of the Comoros dedicates a chapter to gender considerations, including the involvement of women in the development process, the vulnerability of women to the impacts of climate change and initiatives to empower women in climate action. The Government commits to enhancing the participation of women and other vulnerable groups in planning, decision-making, capacity-building and access to technologies, as
well as to conducting gender-specific analyses and collecting data disaggregated by sex and age.20
The nationally determined contributions of nearly all least developed countries, including the Comoros, Djibouti, Mauritania, Somalia and the Sudan,
feature measures aimed at replacing inefficient and environmentally harmful cooking systems with clean fuels and advanced technologies. For instance, the updated nationally determined contribution of the Sudan articulates the goal of replacing traditional inefficient wood stoves with improved cookstoves, targeting
20 per cent of the rural population. This transition, coupled with associated biomass savings, is expected to result in a reduction of 2.6 million tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions by 2030.21 The proportion of the population that relies primarily on clean fuels and technologies in the least developed countries has more than doubled over the past two decades, rising from 23 per cent in 2001 to 37 per cent in 2011 and reaching 51 per cent in 2021. Nevertheless, the average for these countries still lags significantly behind the regional average (88 per cent) and the global average
(71 per cent). Substantial progress is essential to bridge this gap.22
Source: World Resources Institute, Climate Watch (accessed on 31 May 2023).
The nationally determined contribution of every
least developed country prioritizes the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from
forests and land-
use changes,
including by reducing deforestation or expanding afforestation and reforestation. For example, Mauritania in its updated nationally determined contribution emphasizes commitments to assisted forest regeneration, pasture restoration and combating desertification. It is participating in the Great Green Wall initiative of the African Union in partnership with 20 African countries, including two other Arab least developed countries, Djibouti and the Sudan.23
Some least developed countries, such as Somalia and Yemen, have national policies to address displacement related to climate change or natural disasters.
The National Policy on Refugee-Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons of Somalia commits the Government to protect people from climate-induced displacement, implement disaster risk reduction measures in disaster-prone areas, develop and activate early warning systems before any future displacement, and facilitate the voluntary return, relocation and local reintegration of refugee-returnees and internally displaced people.24
Some countries have established national public funds to promote climate adaptation and mitigation projects, such as the Fund for the Fight against the Effects of Natural Disasters in Morocco, the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Fund in Jordan, and the Energy Transition Fund in Tunisia.
Alongside water, agriculture, coastal zones and health, which are priority adaptation sectors in most Arab countries, irrespective of income level, tourism and urban settlements are priority sectors in a number of middle-income countries, including Egypt and Jordan.25
All middle-income countries have set renewable energy targets, and four (Egypt, Jordan, Morocco utill 2030and Tunisia) have made substantial leaps in renewable energy installed capacity since 2015. The Noor Solar Complex of Morocco and the Benban Solar Park of Egypt demonstrate a focus on large-scale renewable energy projects to reduce emissions and promote energy sustainability. Nevertheless, the share of renewables in total final energy consumption has remained largely unchanged in most Arab middle-income countries, except Jordan, where it increased from 3 per cent in 2015 to 11 per cent in 2020.
All middle-income countries have used public competitive bidding to mitigate risks associated with the deployment of renewable energy projects. Most have also used net metering, an electricity billing mechanism that allows customers who generate some or all of their own electricity from solar panels or other renewable sources to sell excess electricity back to the utility grid.
Most middle-income countries (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia) have developed or updated national and local disaster risk reduction strategies since 2015.26
All Gulf Cooperation Council countries have adopted economic diversification strategies with mitigation benefits. For instance, Vision 2040 of Oman seeks to reduce the share of the oil sector in GDP from 39 per cent in 2017 to 16 per cent by 2030 and 8.4 per cent by 2040.Since 2018, the majority of countries, including Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, have implemented excise and value-added taxes to reduce their dependency on hydrocarbon revenues. Qatar has introduced excise taxes but has not yet implemented value-added taxes.Most countries, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, have pledged to reach net-zero emission targets by either 2050 or 2060.
Some countries are exploring carbon market mechanisms. For example, the Regional Voluntary Carbon Market Company, jointly owned by the Public Investment Fund of Saudi Arabia and the Saudi Tadawul Group, conducted the region’s first carbon offset auction in 2022 and plans to launch a carbon credit trading exchange in early 202427 In the United Arab Emirates, the Ministry of Climate Change and Environment is seeking to establish a national system for carbon credits using blockchain technology.
All countries have adopted policies to enhance water-use efficiency in agriculture, such as through the promotion of precision irrigation or the adoption of water-efficient cropping systems.
While most countries have set renewable energy targets, many are also seeking to expand fossil fuel production and promote downstream industries. In Bahrain, the National Development Strategy (2015–2018) emphasizes the assessment and further development of hydrocarbon assets to maximize economic benefits over their lifespan. This entails employing enhanced recovery techniques for existing reserves and conducting exploratory drilling to identify new supplies.
Most countries, including Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, are planning or implementing green and blue hydrogen projects, including one of the world’s largest green hydrogen projects in Neom, Saudi Arabia, costed at $8.5 billion. The United Arab Emirates launched a National Hydrogen Strategy in July 2023, aimed at accelerating industry adoption of low-carbon hydrogen, cultivating a supply chain, enabling infrastructure and reaching a target annual production capacity of 1.4 million tons of low-carbon hydrogen by 2031.
Several countries, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, have incorporated carbon capture and storage measures in their nationally determined contributions. Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates have followed a proactive government-led approach, emphasizing State ownership of facilities, particularly in the initial deployment phases28. The recent launch of the National Hydrogen Strategy in the United Arab Emirates has corroborated the Government’s commitment to carbon capture and storage. The strategy aims to achieve environmental benefits and leverage economic opportunities within the framework of the circular carbon economy by promoting the reuse of carbon dioxide across various industries.
Some countries have relegated climate action to focus on immediate needs rather than long-term goals. For instance, Yemen submitted an intended nationally determined contribution but has not ratified the Paris Agreement.
Despite significant challenges in formulating climate policies due to ongoing conflict, some conflict-affected countries have made efforts to integrate climate change considerations into plans and policies. For example, Yemen is promoting climate resilience in water resources, agriculture and infrastructure.
Two of the three Arab States that have submitted national adaptation plans are conflict-affected countries (the State of Palestine and the Sudan). Four other conflict-affected countries are developing national adaptation plans (Iraq, Somalia, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen).
Iraq, Somalia and Yemen have adopted national policies or frameworks to address displacement in the context of natural hazards.29
The updated nationally determined contribution of the State of Palestine and the intended nationally determined contribution of Yemen include loss and damage considerations related to mobilizing financial resources to deliver ambitious climate actions, with a strong focus on adaptation.
 |
Individuals with lower incomes are severely affected by global warming and disasters as they lack resources to adapt to changes or cope with shocks. The rural poor are especially vulnerable due to their reliance on climate-sensitive farming and pastoralism for their livelihoods. | The Sudan has introduced drought-resistant crop and animal varieties and developed new agricultural extension products and services focused on drought-resistance and sustainable farming methods.a
Djibouti has developed agropastoral shade gardens to improve the resilience of poor rural communities and adaptation to recurrent climate change-induced droughts. b Somalia has advanced ecosystem-based flood preparedness through the establishment of climate monitoring and early warning centres and the promotion of small-scale community water capture infrastructure.c |
|---|---|---|
 |
Women and girls, are more likely to suffer losses due to climate change and disasters, including through increased maternal mortality, the disruption of livelihoods and social networks, displacement, higher schooling dropout rates, and gender-based violence in the aftermath of disaster or conflicts. | In Egypt, the National Strategy for Mainstreaming Gender in Climate Change (2011) seeks to integrate gender perspectives into climate policies. It promotes the equal participation of men and women in shaping effective adaptation and mitigation measures, towards ensuring that everyone can benefit from climate action programmes and funds.
The National Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change and Disaster Risk Reduction (2011) recognizes gender as a cross-cutting issue and emphasizes women’s participation and leadership.
The National Strategy for Women in Lebanon (2011–2021) addresses climate change under two of its key objectives: enhancing the contribution of women to environmental protection, and protecting girls and women in situations of emergency, armed conflict, war and natural disaster. Additionally, the strategy emphasizes the role of women in educating children about eco-friendly behaviours. In Mauritania, the nationally determined contribution requires any project or programme developed within its framework to reserve 10 per cent of its budget to integrate gender, youth and human rights dimensions.d In Tunisia, gender was mainstreamed as a cross-cutting concern within the updated nationally determined contribution, including in the identification of priority areas and measures for advancing gender equality in climate action. Examples include adopting gender just water and agricultural policies, and ensuring women’s transformative participation in the development and implementation of disaster risk reduction strategies and policies.e |
 |
Children and young people bear disproportionate impacts from climate change and disasters; moreover, young and future generations will inherit an environment with diminishing resources and higher risks to lives and livelihoods. | At least eight Arab countries (the Comoros, Egypt, Jordan, Mauritania, the State of Palestine, Somalia, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates) have submitted child sensitive nationally determined contributions.f
These policy documents not only acknowledge children and young people as rights-holders, but also emphasize their pivotal role in shaping climate action policies. Specific child-sensitive commitments span various sectors, with a notable emphasis on education, energy, social protection and water.
In the United Arab Emirates, the Emirates Youth Climate Strategy (2018) seeks to build youth capacities to meet the challenges of climate change and promote youth participation in climate action and domestic decision-making. Youth councils have been established for consultations on policies and legislation, including the National Climate Change Plan and the nationally determined contribution.g |
 |
Persons with disabilities are particularly vulnerable during natural disasters and extreme climate events, which exacerbate barriers to their full participation in society, including the inaccessibility of the physical environment. |
The nationally determined contribution of Jordan calls for the inclusion of disabilityfriendly options in the development of green infrastructure in urban areas and the creation of new green skilled labour opportunities for the disabled through learning, awareness and career path management.h
The National Climate Change Policy highlights the critical importance of inclusivity and the participation of people with disabilities in climate change adaptation and mitigation.
In Qatar, the National Command Centre has developed an emergency distress service (Aounak) that enables persons with disabilities, persons with chronic diseases and the elderly to easily contact the emergency service.i |
 |
Internally displaced people, refugees and migrants are frequently subjected to displacement caused by disasters and the repercussions of climate change, which undermine security and well-being. The convergence of conflict and environmental disasters often results in multiple displacements for these individuals, compounding and extending their vulnerability. |
The Policy Framework on Displacement within Somalia mandates authorities and other stakeholders to assist and protect internally displaced people in emergency situations, including by ensuring safety from floods and other natural calamities. The National Policy on Refugee-Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons commits the Government to safeguard its population from climate-induced displacement and facilitate the voluntary return, relocation and local reintegration of refugee-returnees and internally displaced people.j
The National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction 2030 in Egypt considers the nexus between disasters and displacement, including the risk of displacement associated with slow-onset processes, such as sea-level rise in the Nile delta.k |
 |
Inhabitants of low-lying coastal areas are vulnerable to rising sea levels, erosion and saltwater intrusion into rivers and aquifers, particularly those living in informal settlements, which are often built in areas subject to high-intensity climate hazards. |
At least 15 Arab countries have committed to coastal zone management actions to adapt to the impacts of climate change in their nationally determined contributions. These include Bahrain, the Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, the State of Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, the Sudan and Tunisia.
Egypt and Tunisia have reinforced their capacities to implement integrated coastal zone management through ecosystem-centric approaches to building resilience. l |
Source: ESCWA, 2022a.
Source: ESCWA, 2022a..
Data on climate-related finance flows from domestic sources in the Arab region are limited. Yet some notable trends and initiatives have emerged.
National public funds: Some countries, including Jordan, Morocco, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia, have established national public funds dedicated
to supporting climate-related projects within their respective countries, often with a focus on renewable energy and energy efficiency.
National tracking systems: Morocco is exploring
the development of a national tracking system to monitor domestic public expenditure related to climate action. Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon have formulated plans to introduce mechanisms tracking domestic and international finance as part of their climate measurement, reporting and verification systems.
Green and sustainability bonds: Six Arab countries
(Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates) collectively raised $12.8 billion through green and mixed sustainability bonds between 2015 and June 2022.33
Sovereign green bonds: Egypt issued the region’s first sovereign green bond in 2020, raising $750 million. The proceeds were earmarked for water, sanitation and transportation projects.34
Sustainability-themed funds: Egypt launched the region’s first impact investing fund in 2022.35 This type of fund focuses on investments with the potential to generate positive environmental and social impacts while also delivering financial returns.
Domestic banks are increasingly involved in financing renewable energy projects. Jordan
has emerged as a leader in this area, offering a favourable environment for securing finance for renewable energy initiatives.36
Coalition of Finance Ministers for Climate Action: Five Arab countries (Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq and Morocco ) have joined this global coalition.
Countries have explored various innovative financial instruments to enhance access to climate finance and promote sustainable development. Some noteworthy examples include:
Blended climate finance: The region mobilized
$864 million through blended climate finance mechanisms between 2019 and 2021.37 Blended finance typically combines public and private sector resources to support climate-related projects.
Climate debt swaps involve restructuring a country’s debt in exchange for commitments to allocate resources for climate priorities. Swaps offer a unique opportunity to alleviate debt burdens while channelling funds into critical climate initiatives.
Weather-indexed insurance: Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia have introduced weather-indexed insurance schemes that protect farmers against drought, floods and other climate-related risks. Other countries are exploring similar schemes.
1. ESCWA and others, 2017.
2. ESCWA calculations based on FAO, 2023.
3. Calculations based on the ESCWA Arab SDG Monitor.
4. ESCWA, 2022a.
5. ESCWA, 2021.
6. All Arab countries, with the exception of Libya and Yemen, have ratified the Paris Agreement and submitted nationally determined contributions. Yemen has submitted an intended nationally determined contribution.
7. In addition, fourteen Arab countries have initiated the process to formulate national adaptation plans: Algeria, the Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Somalia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen (UNFCCC, 2022). Some countries, including Iraq, Jordan and Morocco, are more advanced in this process than others.
8. Algeria, the Comoros, Djibouti, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, the State of Palestine, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates have set economy-wide targets. Saudi Arabia has an annual absolute greenhouse gas emissions avoidance target. Egypt and the Sudan have sector-specific targets.
9. Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, the State of Palestine, the Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic and Tunisia. Three Arab countries have fully unconditional mitigation commitments: Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
10. The Comoros, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, the State of Palestine, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates.
11. Bahrain, the Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, Somalia, the Sudan, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates have ratified or developed national disaster risk reduction strategies (UNDRR, 2022). Algeria, Iraq, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the State of Palestine are in the development process, while Libya, Oman, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen have not initiated it (UNESCO, 2021).
12. Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Morocco, the State of Palestine, the Sudan, Tunisia and the United Arab Emirates (UNDRR, 2022, 2023a).
13. Algeria, the Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, the State of Palestine, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen (UNDRR, 2022).
14. Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Qatar, Somalia, the State of Palestine, the Sudan and the United Arab Emirates (African Union, 2022; UNDRR and WMO, 2022).
15. UNESCO, 2022b.
16. UNDRR, 2022.
17. See Lebanon, National Curriculum Framework for Pre-university General Education (Arabic).
18. UNESCO, 2023.
19. UNICEF, 2023. Data are not available for Djibouti and Yemen.
20. See the Comoros, Contribution déterminée au niveau national (CDN actualisée): Rapport de synthèse.
21. See the Sudan, First Nationally Determined Contribution Under the Paris Agreement: Updated 2021.
22. See the ESCWA Arab SDG Monitor.
23. See Mauritania, Contribution déterminée nationale actualisée CDN 2021-2030.
24. See Somalia, National Policy on Refugee-Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).
25. Tourism is a priority adaptation sector in Egypt, Jordan and Tunisia, as are urban settlements in Egypt, Jordan and Morocco.
26. UNDRR, 2022, 2023b.
27. Benny, 2023.
28. Global CCS Institute, 2018.
29. IDMC, 2021.
30. ESCWA, 2022a.
31. Ibid.
32. A broader estimate of public international climate finance flows to the region, incorporating flows with climate tagged as a significant objective and funding from global climate funds, would reach $62 billion from 2010 to 2020, equivalent to 11 per cent of costed climate finance needs of the 11 States (ESCWA, 2022a).
33. ESCWA, 2023a.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. BloombergNEF, 2023.
37. Ibid.
38. UNFCCC, League of Arab states and ESCWA, 2022.
39. ESCWA, 2023b.
40. UNDRR, 2022.
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__________ (2022a). Climate finance needs and flows in the Arab region.
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__________ (2023a). OpenMCR2030. Accessed on 14 August 2023.
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